Patofisiologi Bisa Ular dan Aplikasi Terapi Tumbuhan Obat Antiophidia (Antibisa)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31957/jbp.463Abstract
Venomous snakebite is an important cause of morbidity and mortality, and is one of the major health problems in many regions of the world. Medicinal Plant which are effectively inhibitor and neutralize the snake venom and it is considered as a valuable source of natural products for development of medicines against venomous snake bite. The biomedical value of these natural inhibitors can lead to the development of new therapeutics for an assortment of diseases as well as contributing to efficient antivenoms for the treatment of ophidic accidents.
Key words: pathophysiology, snake bite, envenomation, medicinal plant, therapeutic.Â
Downloads
References
Abubakar, M.S., E. Balogun, E.M. Abdurahman, A.J. Nok, M. Shok, A. Mohammed. and M. Garba. 2006. Ethnomedical treatment of poisonous snakebites: Plant extract neutralized Naja nigricollis. Venom. 44(5): 343-348.
Ambikabothy, J., H. Ibrahim, S. Ambu, S. Chakravarthi, K. Awang. and J. Vejayan. 2011. Efficacy evaluations of Mimosa pudica tannin isolate (MPT) for its anti-ophidian properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 137: 257-262.
Arocas, V., R.B. Zingali, M.C. Guillin, C. Bon. and M. Jandrot-Perrus. 1996. Bothrojaracin: a potent two-site-directed thrombin inhibitor. Biochemistry. 35: 9083-9089.
Assafim, M., M.S. Ferreira, F.S. Frattani, J.A. Guimaraes, R.Q. Monteiro. and R.B. Zingali, 2006. Counteracting effect of glycyrrhizin on the hemostatic abnormalities induced by Bothrops jararaca snake venom. Br. J. Pharmacol. 148: 807-813.
Azevedo,W.F., R.J. Ward, F. Canduri, A. Soares, J.R. Giglio. and R.K. Arni. 1998. Crystal structure of piratoxin-I: a calcium-independent, myotoxic phospholipase A2-homologue from Bothrops pirajai venom. Toxicon. 36(10): 1395-1406.
Bhandary, M.J. and K.R. Chandrashekar. 2000. Treatment for poisonous snake-bites in the ethnomedicine of coastal Karnataka. J. Med. Aromatic. Plant. Sci. 22(4): 505–510.
Bjarnason, J.B. and J.W. Fox. 1994. Hemorrhagic metalloproteinases from snake venoms. Pharmac Ther. 62: 325–372.
Boulenger, G.A. 2000. The snake of Europe. The electronic reprint by Arment Biological Press. Landisville, P.A.
Campbell, C.H. and C.N. Chesterman. 1972. The effect of the venom of the Papuan Black Snake (Pseudechis papuanus) on blood coagulation. PNG Med. J. 15(3): 149-154.
Campbell, C.H. 1966. The death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus): the effect of the bite and its treatment. Med. J. Aust. 2: 922–925.
Chang, L.S., Y.C. Chou, S.R. Lin, B.N. Wu, J. Lin, E. Hong, Y.J. Sun. and C.D. Hsiao. 1997. A novel neurotoxin, cobrotoxin b, from Naja naja atra (Taiwan Cobra) venom: purification, characterization, and gene organization. J. Biochem. (Tokyo). 122: 1252-1259.
Chatterjee, I., A.K. Chakravarty. and A. Gomes. 2006. Daboia russellii and Naja kaouthia venom neutralization by lupeol acetate isolated from the root extract of Indian sarsaparilla Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. J. Ethnopharmacol. 106: 38-43.
Chethankumar, M. and L. Srinivas, 2008. New biological activity against phospholipase A2 by Turmerin, a protein from Curcuma longa L. Biol. Chem. 389: 299-303.
Chen, Z.X., H.L. Zhang, Z.L. Gu, B.W. Chen, R. Han, P.F. Reid, L.N. Raymond. and Z.H. Qin. 2006. A long-form alpha-neurotoxin from cobra venom produces potent opioid independent analgesia. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 27: 402-408.
Chow, G., S. Subburaju. and R.M. Kini. 1998. Purification, characterization, and amino acid sequence determination of acanthins, potent inhibitors of platelet aggregation from Acanthophis antarcticus (common death adder) venom. Arch Biochem Biophys. 354: 232-238.
Chu, E.R., S.A. Weinstein, J. White. and D.A. Warrell. 2010. Venom ophthalmia caused by venoms of spitting elapid and other snakes: Report of ten cases with review of epidemiology, clinical features, pathophysiology and management. Toxicon. 56(3): 259-72.
Chwetzoff, S., P. Mollier, F. Bouet, E.G. Rowan, A.L. Harvey, and A. M'Enez. 1990. On the purification of notexin. Isolation of a single amino acid variant from the venom of Notechis scutatus scutatus. FEBS Lett. 261(2): 226-230.
Crachi, M.T., L.W. Hamer. and W.C. Hodgson. 1999. A pharmacological examination of venom from the Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni). Toxicon. 37(12): 1721-1734.
Da Silva, J.O., R.S. Fernandes, F.K. Ticli, C.Z. Oliveira, M.V. Mazzi, J.J. Franco, S. Giuliatti, P.S. Pereira, A.M. Soares. and S.V. Sampaio. 2007. Triterpenoid saponins, new metalloprotease snake venom inhibitors isolated from Pentaclethra macroloba. Toxicon. 50: 283-291.
Da Silva, S.L., A.K. Calgarotto, J.S. Chaar. and S. Marangoni, 2008. Isolation and characterization of ellagic acid derivatives isolated from Casearia sylvestris SW aqueous extract with anti-PLA2 activity. Toxicon. 52: 655-666.
Dey, A. and J.N. De, 2011. A survey of potential antiophidian botanicals from the Baruipur sub-division of the district South 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants. 1: 219-227.
Dey, A. and J.N. De, 2012. Traditional use of plants against snakebite in Indian subcontinent: A Review of the recent literature. African J. Trad. Compl. Alternat. Med. 9: 153-174.
Dhananjaya, B.L., A. Nataraju, R. Rajesh, C.D.R. Gowda, B.K. Sharath, B.S. Vishwanath. and C.J.M. D'Souza, 2006. Anticoagulant effect of Naja naja venom 5`Nucleotidase: Demonstration through the use of novel specific inhibitor, vanillic acid. Toxicon. 48: 411-421.
Dhananjaya, B.L., F. Zameer, K.S. Girish. and C.J. D'Souza. 2011. Anti-venom potential of aqueous extract of stem bark of Mangifera indica L. against Daboia russellii (Russell's viper) venom. Indian J. Biochem. Biophys. 48: 175-183.
Doorty, K.B., S. Bevan, J.D. Wadsworth, and P.N. Strong. 1997. A novel small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel blocker from Oxyuranus scutellatus taipan venom. Re-evaluation of taicatoxin as a selective Ca2+ channel probe. J Biol Chem 272(32): 19925–30.
Frangides, CY., V. Koulouras, S.N. Kouni, G.V. Tzortzatos, A. Nikolaou, J. Pneumaticos, C. Pierrakeas, C. Niarchos, N.G. Kounis. and C.M. Koutsojannis. 2006. Snake venom poisoning in Greece. Experiences with 147 cases. European J. Internal Med. 17: 24-27.
Francischetti, I.M., B. Saliou, M. Leduc, C.R. Carlini, M. Hatmi, J. Randon, A. Faili and C. Bon. 1997. Convulxin, a potent platelet-aggregating protein from Crotalus durissus terrificus venom, specifically binds to platelets. Toxicon. 35(8): 1217-28.
Fry, B. G., J.C. Wickramaratna, A. Jones, P.F. Alewood and W.C. Hodgson. 2001. Species and regional variations in the effectiveness of antivenom against the in vitro neurotoxicity of death adder (Acanthophis) venoms. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 175: 140-148.
Gao, R., R.M. Kini. and P. Gopalakrishnakone. 1999. Purification, properties, and amino acid sequence of a hemoglobinuria-inducing phospholipase A(2), MiPLA-1, from Micropechis ikaheka venom. Arch Biochem Biophys. 369(1): 181-92.
Gao, R., R.M. Kini. and P. Gopalakrishnakone. 2001. Purification and properties of three new phospholipase A2 isoenzymes from Micropechis ikaheka venom. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta 1545(1-2): 30-40.
Gao, R., R.M. Kini, and P. Gopalakrishnakone. 2002. A novel prothrombin activator from the venom of Micropechis ikaheka: isolation and characterization. Arch Biochem Biophys. 408(1): 87-92.
Gawade, S.P. and B.B. Gaitonde. 1982. Isolation and characterisation of toxic components from the venom of the common Indian sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa). Toxicon. 20(4): 797-801.
Geh, S.L., A. Vincent, S. Rang, T. Abrahams, L. Jacobson, B. Lang, and D.A. Warrell. 1997a. Identification of phospholipase A2 and neurotoxic activities in the venom of the New Guinean small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). Toxicon. 35(1): 101-109.
Geh, S.L. and R.M. Rampal. 1997b. Neuromuscular and cardiovascular effects of mulgotoxin, isolated from the venom of the Australian king brown snake, Pseudechis australis. Toxicon. 35(4): 479-479.
Girish, K.S., H.P. Mohanakumari, S. Nagaraju, B.S. Vishwanath. and K. Kemparaju. 2004. Hyaluronidase and protease activities from Indian snake venoms: Neutralization by Mimosa pudica root extract. Fitoterapia. 75: 378-380.
Girish, K.S. and K. Kemparaju. 2005. Inhibition of Naja naja venom Hyaluronidase by plant derived bioactive components and polysaccharides. Biochemistry. 70: 948-952.
Girish, K.S. and K. Kemparaju. 2011. Overlooked issues of snakebite management: time for strategic approach. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 11(20): 2494-2508.
Gomes, A., A. Saha, I. Chatterjee. and A.K. Chakravarty. 2007. Viper and cobra venom neutralization by beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from the root extract of Pluchea indica Less. (Asteraceae). Phytomedicine. 14: 637–644.
Guinea, M.L., N. Tamiya. and H.G. Cogger. 1983. The neurotoxins of the sea snake Laticauda schistorhynchus. Biochem. J. 213: 39-41.
Gutiérrez, J.M., M. Romero, J. Nunez, F. Chaves, G. Borkow. and M. Ovadia. 1995. Skeletal muscle necrosis and regeneration after injection of BaH1, a hemorrhagic metalloproteinase isolated from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper (Terciopelo). Exp.Mol. Pathol. 62: 28-41.
Gutiérrez, J.M., T. Escalante, and A. Rucavado. 2009. Experimental pathophysiology of systemic alterations induced by Bothrops asper snake venom. Toxicon. 54(7): 976–987.
Gutiérrez, J.M., D. Williams, H.W. Fan. and D.A. Warrell. 2010. Snakebite envenoming from a global perspective: Towards an integrated approach. Toxicon. 56(7): 1223-1235.
Harris, J.B. and C. A. Maltin. 1982. Myotoxic activity of the crude venom and the principal neurotoxin, taipoxin, of the Australian taipan, Oxyuranus scutellatus. Br. J. Pharmacol. 76(1): 61–75.
Hati, R., P. Mitra, S. Sarker. and K.K. Bhattacharyya. 1999. Snake venom hemorrhagins. Crit. Ver. Toxinol. 29: 1-19.
Hodgson, W.C., C.A. Dal Belo. and E.G. Rowan. 2007. The neuromuscular activity of paradoxin: a presynaptic neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). Neuropharmacology. 52(5): 1229-36.
Jackson, K. 2003. The evolution of venom-delivery systems in snakes. Zoological J. The Linnean Society. 137: 337-354.
Kamiguti, A.S. G.D. Laing, G.M. Lowe, M. Zuzel, D.A. Warrell, R.D.G. Theakston. 1994. Biological properties of the venom of the Papuan black snake (Pseudechis papuanus): Presence of a phospholipase A2 platelet inhibitor. Toxicon. 32(8): 915–925.
Kamiguti, A.S., M. Zuzel. and R.D.. Theakston. 1998. Snake venom metalloproteinases and disintegrins: interaction with cells. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 31: 853-862.
Karalliedde, L. 1995. Animal toxins. British J. Anaesthesia. 74: 319-327
Kardong, K.V. 1982. The evolution of the venom apparatus in snakes from Colubrid to Viperids and Elapids. Mem. Inst. Butantan. 46: 106-118.
Karim, A.K., E. Indrayani, E. Warikar, dan R.P.E. Ramandey. 2013. Tumbuhan obat: sumber senyawa bioaktif antibisa untuk penanggulangan gigitan ular berbisa. Jurnal Bahan Alam Indonesia. 8(5): 366-375.
Kemparaju, K. and K. S. Girishy. 2006. Snake venom hyaluronidase: a therapeutic target. Cell Biochem Funct. 24: 7-12.
Kim, H.S., and N. Tamiya, N. 1981. Isolation, properties and amino acid sequence of a long-chain neurotoxin, Acanthophis antarcticus b, from the venom of an Australian snake (the common death adder, Acanthophis antarcticus). Biochem. J. 193: 899-906.
Krizaj, I., G. Faure, F. Gubensek. and C. Bon. 1997. Neurotoxic phospholipases A2 ammodytoxin and crotoxin bind to distinct high-affinity protein acceptors in Torpedo marmorata electric organ. Biochemistry. 36: 2779-2787.
Kumar, B.K., S.S. Nanda, P. Venkateshwarlu, Y.K. Kumar. and R.T. Jadhav. 2010. Antisnake venom serum (ASVS). Inter. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Res. (IJPBR). 1(3): 76-89.
Kuppusamy, U.R. and N.P. Das. 1991. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on several venom hyaluronidases. Experentia. 47: 1196-1200.
Lalloo, D.G., A.J. Trevett, A. Saweri, S. Naraqi, R.D.G. Theakston. and D.A. Warrell. 1994. Neurotoxicity and haemostatic disturbances in patient's envenomed by the Papuan black snake (Pseudechis papuanus). Toxicon. 12(8): 927-936.
Lalloo, D.G., A.J. Trevett,, A. Saweri, S. Naraqi, R.D.G. Theakston and D.A. Warrell. 1995. The epidemiology of snake bite in Central Province and National Capital District, Papua New Guinea. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 89: 178-182.
Lind, P. and D. Eaker. 1981. Amino acid sequence of a lethal myotoxic phospholipase-A2 from the venom of the common sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa). Toxicon 19(1): 11-24.
Machiah, D.K., K.S. Girish. and T.V. Gowda. 2006. A glycoprotein from a folk medicinal plant, Withania somnifers, inhibits hyaluronidase activity of snake venoms. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 143(2): 158-161.
Mahadeswaraswamy, Y.H., M.S. Kumar, Y.J. Gowtham, S. Nagaraju, K.S. Girish. and K. Kemparaju, 2011. The polyphenol 3,4,5-tri-hydroxy benzoic acid inhibits Indian Daboia russelli venom and its hemorrhagic complex induced local toxicity. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 11: 2520-2530.
McCue, M.D. 2005. Enzyme activities and biological functions of snake venoms. Applied Herpetology. 2: 109-123.
Markland, F. S. 1998. Snake venom fibrinogenolytic and fibrinolytic enzymes: a updated inventory. Thromb. Haemost. 79: 668-674.
Marrakchi, N., R. Barbouche, S. Guermazi, H. Karoui, C. Bon. and M. El-Ayeb. 1997. Cerastotin, a serine protease from Cerastes Cerastes venom with platelet aggregating and agglutinating properties. Eur. J. Biochem. 247: 121-128.
Marsh, N. and V. Williams. (2005) Practical applications of snake venom toxins in haemostasis. Toxicon. 45: 1171-1181.
Meenatchisundaram, S. and A. Michael. 2010. Antitoxin activity of Mucuna pruriens aqueous extracts against cobra and krait venom by in vivo and in vitro methods. Inter. J. PharmTech Res. 2(1): 870-874.
Mukherjee, A.K., R. Doley. and D. Saikia. 2008. Isolation of a snake venoms phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitor (AIPLAI) from leaves of Azadirachta indica (Neem): mechanism of PLA2 inhibition by AIPLAI in vitro condition. Toxicon. 51: 1548-53.
Nirthanan, S., R. Gao, P. Gopalakrishnakone, M.C.E. Gwee, H.E. Khoo, L.S. Cheah. and R.M. Kini. 2002. Pharmacological characterization of mikatoxin, an α-neurotoxin isolated from the venom of the New-Guinean small-eyed snake Micropechis ikaheka. Toxicon. 40(7): 863-871.
O’Shea, M. 1996. A Guide to The Snakes of Papua New Guinea. Published in Papua New Guinea by Independent Publishing, Independent Group Pty Ltd, PO.Box 168, Porst Moresby.
Oyama, E. and Takahashi H. 2000. Purification and characterization of a thrombin-like enzyme, elegaxobin, from the venom of Trimeresurus elegans (Sakishima-habu). Toxicon. 38(8): 1087-100.
Possani, L.D., B.M. Martin, A. Yatani, J. Mochca-Morales, F.Z. Zamudio, G.B. Gurrola. and A.M. Brown, M., 1992. Isolation and physiological characterization of taicatoxin, a complex toxin with specific effect on calcium channels. Toxicon. 30(11): 1343-1364.
Radonic V, D. Budimir, N. Brataric, B. Luksic, D. Sapunar. and K. Vilovic. 1997. Envenomation by the Hornet viper (Vipera ammodytes L). Mil Med. 162: 179-182.
Rosetto, O., M. Rigoni. and C. Montecucco. 2004. Different mechanism of blockade of neuroexocytosis by presynaptic neurotoxin. Toxicol. Lett. 149: 91-101.
Rucavado, A., J. Nunez, and J.M. Gutiérrez. 1998. Blister formation and skin damage induced by BaP1, a haemorrhagic metalloproteinase from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 79: 245-254.
Samejima, Y., Y. Aoki-Tomomatus, M. Yanagisawa, and D. Mebs. 1997. Amino acid sequence of two neurotoxins from the venom of the Egyptian black snake (Walterinnesia aegyptia). Toxicon. 35(2): 151-157.
Samy, R.P., P. Gopalakrishnakone, and V.T.K. Chow. 2012. Therapeutic application of natural inhibitor against snake venom phospalipase A2. Bioinformation. 8(1): 048-057.
Sánchez, E.E. and A. RodrÃguez-Acosta. 2008. Inhibitors of snake venoms and development of new therapeutics. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 30(4): 647-78.
Sarkhel, S., A.K. Chakravarty, R. Das, A. Gomes. and A. Gomes. 2011. Snake venom neutralising factor from the root extract of Emblica officinalis Linn. Orient. Pharm. Exp. Med.11: 25-33.
Soares, A.M., F.K. Ticli, S. Marcussi, M.V. Lourenco, A.H. Januario, S.V. Sampaio, J.R. Giglio, B. Lomonte, and P.S. Pereira. 2005. Medicinal plants with inhibitory properties against snake venoms. Curr. Med. Chem. 12: 2655-2661.
Sokolovsky, M. and Z. Shraga-Levine. 2001. Sarafotoxins and Their Relationship to the Endothelin Family of Peptides. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology Volume 152, pp 11-34. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Stocker, K., H. Hauer, C. Muller. and D.A. Triplett. 1994. Isolation and characterization of Textarin, a prothrombin activator from eastern brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis) venom. Toxicon. 32(10): 1227-1236.
Sundell, I.B., R.D. Theakston, A.S. Kamiguti, R.J. Harris, A.T. Treweeke, G.D. Laing, J.W. Fox, Warrell, D.A. and M. Zuzel. 2001. The inhibition of platelet aggregation and blood coagulation by Micropechis ikaheka venom. Brit. J. Haematol 114(4): 852-60.
Tan, N.H., G.G. Ponnudurai. and M.C. Chung. 1997. Proteolytic specificity of rhodostoxin, the major hemorrhagin of Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper) venom. Toxicon. 35(6): 979-984.
Tyler, M.I., K.V. Retson-Yip, M.K. Gibson, D. Barnett, E. Howe, R. Stocklin, R.K. Turnbull, T. Kuchel. and P. Mirtschin. 1997. Isolation and amino acid sequence of a new long-chain neurotoxin with two chromatographic isoforms (Aa e1 and Aa e2) from the venom of the Australian death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus). Toxicon. 35: 555-562.
Teixeira, C.F.P., C.M. Fernandes, J.P. Zuliani. and S.F. Zamuner. 2005. Inflammatory effects of snake venom metalloproteinases. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro. 100(Suppl. I): 181-184.
Ticli, F.K., L.I. Hage, R.S. Cambraia, P.S. Pereira and A.J. Magro, M.R.M. Fontes, R.G. Stabeli, J.R. Giglio, A.M. Soares. and S.V. Sampaio. 2005. Rosmarinic acid, a new snake venom phospholipase A2 inhibitor from Cordia verbenacea (Boraginaceae): antiserum action potentiation and molecular interaction. Toxicon. 46: 318-327.
Toyama, M.H., E.M. Carneiro, S. Marangoni, R.L. Barbosa, G. Corso. and A.C. Boschero. 2000. Biochemical characterization of two crotamine isoforms isolated by a single step RP-HPLC from Crotalus durissus terrificus (South American rattlesnake) venom and their action on insulin secretion by pancreatic islets. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1474(1): 56-60.
Tsai, I.H. and Y.M. Wang. 1998. Effect of site directed mutagenesis on the activity of recombinant trimucrotoxin, a neurotoxic phospholipase from Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom. Toxicon. 36(11): 1591-1597.
Ushanandini, S., S. Nagaraju, K.K. Harish, M. Vedavathi, D.K. Machiah, K. Kemparaju , B.S. Vishwanath, T.V. Gowda. and K.S. Girish. 2006. The anti-snake venom properties of Tamarindus indica seed extract. Phytother Res. 20(10): 851-858.
Valentin, E. and G. Lambeau. 2000. Increasing molecular diversity of secreted phospholipases-A(2) and their receptors and binding proteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1488: 59-70.
van der Weyden, L., P.G. Hains, M. Morris. and K.W. Broady. 1997. Acanthoxin, a toxic phospholipase A2 from the venom of the common death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus). Toxicon. (8): 1315-25.
van der Weyden, L., P.G. Hains. and K.W. Broady. 2000. Characterisation of the biochemical and biological variations from the venom of the death adder species (Acanthophis antarcticus, A praelongus and A pyrrhus). Toxicon. 38: 1703-1713.
Vejayan, J., H. Ibrahim. and I. Othman. 2007. The potential of Mimosa pudica (Mimosaceae) against snake envenomation. J. Tropi. Forest Sci. 19(4): 189-197.
Warrell, D.A. 2010. Guidelines for the management of snake-bites. World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia, Indraprastha Estate, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, New Delhi-110 002, India. 153p.
WHO. 2005. Guidelines for the clinical management of snake bite in the South-East Asia region. World Health Organization, Regional Office for South East Asia. New Delhi.
White, J. 2005. Snake venom and coagulopathy. Toxicon. 45: 951-967.
Wickramaratna, J.C. and W.C. Hodgson. 2001. A pharmacological examination of venoms from three species of death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus, Acanthophis praelongus and Acanthophis pyrrhus). Toxicon 39: 209-216.
Wickramaratna, J.C., B.G. Fry, M.I. Aguilar, R.M. Kini. and W.C. Hodgson. 2003. Isolation and pharmacological characterization of a phospholipase A2 myotoxin from the venom of the Irian Jayan death adder (Acanthophis rugosus). Br. J. Pharmacol. 138: 333-342.
Wilson, H.I., G.M. Nicholson, M.I. Tyler. and M.E. Howden. 1995. Induction of giant miniature end-plate potentials during blockade of neuromuscular transmission by textilotoxin. Nauny Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 352(1): 79-87.
Zamudio, F., K.M. Wolf, B.M. Martin, L.D. Possani. and V.A. Chiappinelli. 1996. Two novel alpha-neurotoxins isolated from the taipan snake, Oxyuranus scutellatus, exhibit reduced a�nity for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in brain and skeletal muscle. Biochemistry. 35(24): 7910-7916.
Zug, G.R, L.J. Vitt, and J.P. Cadwell. 2001. Herpetology: An introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. 2nd Ed. Academic Pres Limited. London. 630p.
